CHAPTER ONE: Introduction

Throughout the world today, there are many more bilingual individuals than there are monolingual individuals, and there are many more children who are educated through a second language than are educated exclusively through their native language (Padilla, Fairchild, & Valadez,1990).

Prior to the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1949, which led to the exodus of Tibetan refugees into India in 1959, Tibetan was the only language through which Tibet's traditional education was imparted (Gyatsho, 1986). The new life in India, however, exposed the Tibetans to an entirely different education system, which the Dalai Lama chose to be imparted through English language (Avedon, 1984). For more than four decades in exile, Tibetan students in India have been educated through English language.

In the recent years, however, the Tibetan Department of Education (DOE) made an unprecedented move in its educational mission for Tibetan children in exile. The DOE requested Samdhong Rinpoche, the most popular Tibetan scholar and academician, to draft a plan to revise the present education system for Tibetans in India. The plan would serve as a guideline for reforming the education for Tibetans in India and also as a framework for the education system in an anticipated free Tibet (Rinpoche, 1985).

In the following year, Rinpoche wrote a paper entitled "Suggested Reforms in the Tibetan Education System" which proposes major changes in the education of Tibetans in India (Appendix A). A primary recommendation in the paper is that the language of instruction in Tibetan schools in India should be changed from the present English to Tibetan. Rinpoche assumes that this change of language of instruction will help remedy the decline in the educational standards in these schools (Koetsier 1997, p. 3). Furthermore, the change appears to be directed towards facilitating Tibetan students in India to:

1. maintain their language and culture,
2. make career plans to meet the needs of their community, and
3. strengthen their commitment for the Tibetan independence movement in exile (Koetsier, 1987).

Koetsier (1987) is the only Western scholar to date who has published a commentary on Rinpoche's paper. In reviewing Rinpoche's paper, Koetsier has called the proposed plan, a process of Tibetanization (Koetsier, 1987, p. 3). Although Rinpoche's paper has been available for almost fourteen years, it has not been published in any of the Tibetan publications, and most Tibetans in India are not aware of the contents. In spite of the lack of analysis and discussion of Rinpoche's paper (1985), the proposed change of language of instruction (hereafter referred to as the Tibetanization Program) is being implemented. Since 1996, the Tibetan Children's Village (TCV), which is the biggest autonomous Tibetan school in India, has undertaken the leadership in teaching all the non-language subjects in Tibetan for grades one through five, with the aim of gradually expanding to the eighth grade. If this innovation is successful, the program is expected to include about 15,000 children (TCV, 1996, p. 45) The Department of Education, (DOE) Central Tibetan Administration (CTA) in Dharamsala has endorsed the Tibetanization Program, as indicated by Article 17 (8) of its draft Constitution. It shall endeavor to improve all primary, middle and high schools operated by the Tibetan Administration or by private individuals or organizations. It shall gradually endeavor to use Tibetan as the language of instruction in all its schools with special emphasis placed on the moral education rooted in the religious teachings. (Constitution Drafting Committee, 1991)

Many people in the Tibetan community do worry about the declining educational standards in Tibetan schools (Tenzin, 1996, Tsering, 1996,). Assuming that there has been a decline in the educational standards in Tibetan schools, we do not know much about its causes.

Theme

It is very hard to find the right remedies for problems we do not understand well enough. The Tibetanization Program is a remedy suggested for a problem in Tibetan schools. But we do not know if the problem exists or what its causes are. However, based on the Rinpoche's draft proposal, my theme is that the Tibetan children's education in India will not improve and be feasible, if the Tibetanization Program is implemented in all schools. My paper is a comment and critique on Rinpoche's paper and can not be empirically tested. I have used the logical studies of other systems of bilingual education, particularly USA and Canada, to support my theme. The inspiration for writing this thesis comes from this concern. It is hoped that this thesis will initiate some serious public discussion on the Tibetanization Program.

Objectives

The main objective of this study is to examine the Tibetanization Program as proposed in Rinpoche's paper (1995). Three main questions are raised: (a) what may be the effects of using Tibetan as the language of instruction on the educational achievement of students in Tibetan Children's Village school, which has already initiated the program? (b) How feasible is the implementation of Tibetanization Program in the present situation of Tibetan life in India?, and (c) What other measures may be taken to improve the educational standards in Tibetan schools in India? In addressing these questions, the following procedures are considered necessary:

1. to examine the political, social and economic factors that affect the functioning of Tibetan schools in India;
2. to investigate what research studies say about efforts of teaching immigrant population in their native languages in other countries;
3. to critique the Tibetanization Program and make some suggestions for improving educational standards in Tibetan schools in India.

Assumptions and Limitations

This thesis assumes that the goals of Rinpoche's proposal (1985) for the change of language of instruction in Tibetan schools are worthwhile, but it argues that its feasibility has not been adequately analyzed before implementation. The main assumption of this thesis is that the Tibetanization Program may be interpreted at its face value, assuming that the program will be implemented exactly as suggested in Rinpoche's paper (1985).

Another assumption is that despite tremendous differences in circumstance, under which different countries handle the education of immigrant children in their native languages, they have some common experiences, which might be applicable to the Tibetan situation. For example, this thesis has used research findings in the United States on the education of immigrant children in their native languages. These findings are used to discuss the educational effects of the Tibetanization Program. I have, however, attempted to reduce my own biases in the selection of studies for review by uncritically including all studies related to the thesis topic as learned in policy studies at the MIIS.

Scope of Thesis

Discussion of the Tibetanization Program covers the Tibetan schools in India which offer secular modern education. Tibetanization Program has many dimensions to its effects on Tibetan students, but the thesis will focus on the dimension of educational achievement. Although Tibetan schools vary in their administrative structures and funding sources, they basically operate within the same social, political and economic conditions. And the feasibility of the Tibetanization Program can be generalized for all Tibetan schools in India.

Definition of Terms and Phrases

The following terms and phrases are used frequently throughout the thesis:

Native language of an individual is the language into which he or she is born; it is the language, which is first acquired in the individual's childhood through the process of socialization with his or her parents and other people. Porter (1990) says that phrases like, mother tongue, home language, and first language are used synonymously with native language (p. 59). Danesi (1991) uses the phrase heritage language synonymously with native language. Language of instruction is the language through which a school subject is taught, and it is synonymous with the phrase, medium of instruction. The phrase, language of instruction is often confused with language instruction, which is used when a particular language, like English, is the object being taught (Fillmore & Valadez, 1986, p. 654). The phrase native language instruction as used in this thesis refers to the use of native language as the language of instruction. If the object of instruction is the native language itself, the phrase, instruction of native language will be used to avoid confusion.

School language is the language in which a school curriculum is implemented. For example, English is the school language for Tibetan schools, although the Tibetan students predominantly speak their native (Tibetan) language in and out of classrooms.

A second language for an individual is a language other than his/her native language. For example, for Tibetan students in India, English is a second language.