CHAPTER THREE: Education of Tibetans in India

In the previous chapter we looked at the political and economic context in which the Tibetanization Program is being implemented. In this chapter we will look at the development of Tibetan education in India. Some of the questions addressed are:

1. How did the Tibetan schools in India begin?
2. Who finance and support them?
3. What type of educational system do Tibetan schools follow? (d) How many children attend Tibetan schools in India? and,
4. How much authority does the Tibetan government in exile have in effecting changes in Tibetan schools?

Exposure to Modern Public Education

The Tibetan's experiment with modern public school education in traditional Tibet failed twice due to opposition from monastic authorities and government officials (Samphel, 1986b). Although it was hard for the Tibetans to leave their country, life in exile gave them the opportunity to acquire modern scientific education, which they lacked.

Establishing schools for Tibetan children was a foremost goal that the Dalai Lama implemented when he reached India. As the Dalai Lama wrote in his autobiography, the education of Tibetan children was urgent and important to him and to his people.

It is even harder for children than for adults to be uprooted and taken suddenly to an entirely different environment. We had to do something drastic to preserve their health and their education was also a matter of great importance. We know that our children in Tibet are being snatched away from their parents and brought up as Chinese Communists, not as Tibetan Buddhists. ...... So, in the next generation, the children in India may be very important people, a nucleus of the peaceful religious lif, which we wish to regain. (Dalai Lama, 1983, p. 226)

Beginning of Tibetan Schools in India Administration have in effecting changes in Tibetan schools?

On March 3, 1960, the Dalai Lama opened the first Tibetan school with 50 students (Information Office, 1981) in the north Indian town of Mussoorie where he resided a few months before he moved to his present headquarter, Dharamsala.

During his meeting with the late Indian Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, in May, 1961, the Dalai Lama raised the issue of education for Tibetan children (Avedon, 1984). It is reported that the Dalai Lama declined Nehru's offer to send all Tibetan children to Indian public schools so that separate schools could be set up where they could learn Tibetan language, religion, and culture (Tsering, 1986b). The two leaders agreed that the pattern of education be adapted to the social, cultural and religious needs of the Tibetans (Dhondup, 1986, p. 15; Narayan, 1984).

Role of the Indian Government in Tibetan Education

Soon after the meeting with the Dalai Lama in 1961, Nehru set up an autonomous body within the Indian Ministry of Education called "Tibetan Schools Society". The Society's purpose was to establish and oversee a network of residential and day schools, staffed jointly by Indian and Tibetan teachers. It's Governing Body was chaired by the Union Minister of Education and was composed of three Indian government officials, three Tibetan representatives of the Tibetan Administration, and members of the former Central Committee ( Nowak, 1984; Avedon, 1984; Information Office, 1981).

Major Policy Changes

In 1969, the Tibetan Schools Society was renamed, Central Tibetan Schools Administration (CTSA) with half its members Indian (Nowak, 1984) Its chair, which was earlier assumed by the Union Minister of Education, was re-assigned to a Joint Secretary in the Indian Ministry of Education (Council for Tibetan Education, 1985).

In 1975 the Indian government changed its policy of providing free education to all Tibetan children in India (Information Office, 1981), based on the view that Tibetan children born in India could not be considered as refugees (Narayan, 1984; Shrimali, 1984).

Until 1975, each Tibetan school was administered jointly by a Tibetan Principal and an Indian Headmaster. The Principal was responsible for overall administration, and the Headmaster assisted the Principal in planning academic programs and maintaining financial accounts (Information Office, 1981). In 1976, the Indian Headmaster was re-designated as the Principal and the Tibetan Principal became the Rector (Council for Tibetan Education, 1985). Dhondup (1985) and Tenzin (1986) maintain that this change weakened the authority of Tibetan administrator in comparison to that of the Indian administrator, while a Tibetan official document claims, that there was no functional change in their duties (Information Office, 1981, p. 27).

Tibetan schools were established separately for education of Tibetan children in India. However, an increasing number of local Indian students have been admitted to Tibetan schools. The first such incidence was reported by Tibetan Review (1977c), which mentioned that the CTSA meeting discussed on the admitting Indian students in Tibetan schools. It decided that overall maximum percentage of Indian students be kept at ten percent of the total enrollment and no Tibetan children should be denied admission (p. 8).

These changes in the Indian government's policy on education of Tibetans in India have influenced the present functioning of Tibetan schools in India. Present Situation of Tibetan Schools

Presently, the Tibetan Department of Education (DOE) in Dharamsala (established in 1960) collaborates with the (CTSA) in New Delhi. Their cooperation is based on the understanding that the former would be responsible for education of the children who were born in India, while the latter would be responsible for education of children who came to India as infants or youngsters (Narayan, 1984). However, we will discover in the following discussion that the CTSA still bears a huge responsibility in educating Tibetan children in India. The DOE currently oversees the education of over 27,000 children in 87 Tibetan schools in India ( Table.3.1). This approximately covers 27 percent of the total population of 100,000 Tibetans in India, who are attending schools (Samten, 1995)

Three Types of Schools

Tibetan schools in India are of three types, based on their source of funding and administrative body. There are schools that are predominantly dependent on financial and administrative assistance from the CTSA. Such schools are hereby referred to as CTSA Schools. Second type of schools includes those independently funded and administered by the DOE. Such schools are hereby referred to as DOE Schools. The third type of school is independently administered by autonomous Tibetan organizations, which receive financial help from philanthropic individuals and non-governmental organizations worldwide. Such schools are hereby referred to as Autonomous Schools. Table 3.1 provides data on types of schools, number of schools and students in each school type. This Table demonstrates that more than 50 percent of the Tibetan students are enrolled in the CTSA Schools.

In 1992, in the CTSA Schools alone, there were 304 Indian and 162 Tibetan teachers (Planning Council, 1994 p. 19). This concurs with a 1981 report by the Tibetan Administration, which stated that the majority of the teachers in the Tibetan schools were Indian. (information Office, 1981 p. 27. )

To analyze the situation of the Tibetan schools in India it is necessary to determine the capacity of each type of school in delivering school education. 32 Schools with grade twelve as the highest level usually enroll more students and employ more teachers than those serving only lower grades. Out of the seven higher-grade level schools (all of which are residential), four are CTSA Schools, and the remaining three are autonomous Schools (Table 3.2) The DOE runs seventeen schools in India most of which have grades lower than ten. Implementation of the Indian Educational System

Tibetan schools in India follow the system of Indian school education. However, Tibetan schools differ from the Indian schools in that they were initially established with the aim of imparting modern scientific education to Tibetan children while maintaining Tibetan culture. It is important to note that almost all the students in Tibetan schools are Tibetan, while many of the total number of teachers in these schools are Indian. The implementation of the Indian educational system in Tibetan schools has three main aspects:

1. Educational Pattern
   Tibetan schools in India are affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), New Delhi, and follow what is called a 10+2 pattern of education which is being promoted nationwide as the standard form of school education. This pattern has ten years of general education and two years of high school with different streams, after which students can attend institutions of higher education. CBSE is an autonomous body, within the Indian Education System, controlled by the government of India. It functions as an educational standardization board.

2. School Curriculum
   School curriculum in Tibetan schools is designed and prepared by the CBSE, and the textbooks which are based on this curriculum are prepared by the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), New Delhi. Like most students in Indian schools, Tibetan students are required to take three different language classes (English, Tibetan and Hindi). This requirement is based on the Indian national policy on education, called the Three Language Formula. More discussion on this is present in the next chapter. The textbooks for Tibetan language are prepared and printed by the DOE. The content of the Tibetan text books for grades nine to twelve are, however, decided by a special committee in the CBSE which has two Tibetan members (Council for Tibetan Education, 1985, p. 12).

3. Graduation Requirement
   Graduation requirements for grades K-9 are not regulated by the CBSE; and each school sets its own standards. Students in Tibetan schools are, however, required to take the CBSE-designed examinations at the end of the tenth and twelfth grades. Promotion to the senior high level (grades 11 and 12), and entrance to college are determined on the basis of an individual's performance on these examinations. In both examinations, Tibetan language competency is not required, while English language competency is necessary.

School Enrollment

There is a large discrepancy in reports on the number of children attending Tibetan schools. According to Grunfeld (1987), about 40 percent of the total population of Tibetans in India were of school age. If Grunfeld's figure is accurate, only about 37 percent of the school-age Tibetan children attended school. But according to the Department of Education (1995), the average rate of attendance in primary and secondary schools was 92 percent. School Finance

As discussed above, Tibetan schools in India are financed through different sources. CTSA Schools are financed by the government of India through CTSA; DOE and Autonomous schools are supported through donations from individuals, NGOs and philanthropic organizations around the world, through their sponsorship programs. With the improvement in the socio-economic conditions of the Tibetans over the years, the middle class families also contribute towards their children's education in all these schools.

The sponsorship programs of the DOE and the autonomous schools provide free education to maximum number of orphan and destitute children. With the termination of free education in the CTSA schools in 1975, parents and the DOE had to pay for the education of their children in these schools at higher level. The government of India, however, remains the biggest source of funding for education of Tibetan children.

School Administration

As previously described, Tibetan schools are of three types. The CTSA schools are primarily administered through an Indian government body, while the DOE Schools and Autonomous Schools are administered by Tibetan Administration and private institutions. Both the DOE and the CTSA share responsibility in administering the CTSA schools. The DOE is empowered to appoint the Tibetan administrators (Rectors) and teachers for Tibetan language and cultural classes, while the CTSA selects and appoints the Indian administrators (Principals) and teachers for all other school subjects in the CTSA schools (Tibetan Review, 1977a).

The DOE is regarded as the Tibetan Ministry of Education and its suggestions and recommendations are highly complied by the Private Schools too.

The initial relationship between the DOE and the CTSA regarding the administration of the CTSA schools appeared to have deteriorated for few years. The Tibetan authorities have been expressing their desire for more control on the education of all Tibetan children. But the DOE's influence in the administration of the CTSA schools has been weakened since the re-designation of the Tibetan Principals and the Indian Headmasters in 1976. Dhondup (1985) suggests that this power shift was a reaction to rumors of Tibetans planning to take over the teaching posts in these schools and that the DOE had been promoting patriotic slogans such as Tibetans must be educated by Tibetans (p. 19). Tenzin (1986) claims that the CTSA's influence on decisions made by the Indian Ministry of Education has weakened with the appointment of low-ranking Indian officials to its posts, and that there are unnecessary conflicts between the CTSA and the DOE whose staff lack wisdom and experiences (p. 11).

Problems in Tibetan Schools

Tibetans schools in India face numerous problems, but the following appear to be pertinent for an analysis of the implementation of the Tibetanization

Program.

Inefficient School Administration:
The administrative complications that exist between the DOE and the CTSA have been discussed above. During his four-month period of research at six Tibetan schools, Chhodak (1981) found that school administration had problems of unnecessary bureaucracy and management arising from centralized rules and regulations. He also commented on the role of the administrators functioning as disciplinarians instead of nourishing the academic environment. Others criticize the lack of centralized planning for the education of Tibetan children in India (Tibetan Review)

Lack of Financial Support:
Obtaining financial support is a perennial problem that Tibetan schools face whether for extending educational facilities to more children or for implementing educational innovations. Presently, it is impossible for Tibetans in India to run all the Tibetan schools without depending on financial help from outside their community.

Poor Academic Performance:

Tibetan students in the early 1970s have had remarkable academic performance based on the results of their high school examination (Tibetan Review, 1977a) There is a general belief among the Tibetans that the present Tibetan students do not do well in academic performance as compared to the early Tibetan students.

Some speculations about the causes of this decline in the academic performance are:

1. lack of parental interest and involvement in the education of their children (Tibetan Review, 1978),
2. poor teacher-student communications, especially in the CTSA Schools where the majority of teachers do not speak Tibetan (Tibetan Review, 1977b),
3. lack of counseling and guidance services (DOE, 1995; Tsering, 1990) Teacher Shortage: Tibetan schools have been facing teacher shortages for quite some time (Council for Tibetan Education, 1985). The shortage has further become acute with the immigration of 1,000 Tibetan families to the United States, the selection criteria for which appeared favorable to those applicants with high educational qualifications and proficiency in English (Tibetan Bulletin, 1994).

A general trend of teacher shortage may be illustrated from the number of vacancy announcements, by the DOE for teacher's positions in 1995 through 1998 Tibetan Bulletin. The 37 new teaching vacancies announced for the 1995 academic session were in the following fields: Tibetan language (12 vacancies), primary education (8 vacancies), Math and Science education (6 vacancies), English language (2 vacancies), Business and Economics (2 vacancies), and physical education/music/dance (7 vacancies).

Lack of Career Opportunities: The 100,000 member Tibetan community in India is a tiny group among India's large population. Career opportunities within the Tibetan community itself are both limited in number and scope. Tsering (1990) believes that the lack of career opportunities is a de-motivating factor for student's interest in study and is the cause for decline in educational standards in Tibetan schools.

Conferences and Symposia on Tibetan Education

Dhondup (1986) reports that three conferences have been organized on Tibetan education. He does not specify the main topic of each conference, but writes that their overall conclusion was that the present system of education does not serve the original aims of education for Tibetans (p. 15). According to Information Office (1981), the purpose for convening the First Tibetan Educational Conference (1964) and Second Tibetan Educational Conference (1972) was to discuss preparation of Tibetan textbooks for schools. Tibetan Children's Village (1990) mentions two other conferences on Tibetan education: (a) General Conference of Tibetan Teachers, 1985; and (b International Seminar on Tibetan Language, 1987 (p. 44).

In October 1985, a symposium on The Relevance of the Present System of Education for Tibetans was held at a CTSA school in Mussoorie. All the papers presented at the symposium address the decline of educational standards in Tibetan schools. And, different views were expressed on the relevance of the present education system in Tibetan schools to the need of the Tibetan community in India. For example, Tsering (1986b), expressed his view that the Indian education system was relevant to fulfilling the immediate goals of life in exile, but fails to fulfill the needs of restoring Tibetan independence, and at the same time preserving and promoting Tibetan language and culture (p. 10). Tsering (1986a) refuted the popular belief that the irrelevance of Indian education to the needs of the Tibetans is the main cause of the educational decline in Tibetan schools, and claimed that the present education system served the Tibetans to live effectively in the changing socio-economic scenes in India. Samphel (1986a) suggested that due to the lack of resources, it would be more meaningful to make the present education system efficient, rather than revising the present education system.

Other Tibetan Educational Institutions in India

Over 189 Tibetan Buddhist monastic institutions in India are independently financed and administered by the Tibetans (Information Office, 1991). Additionally, there are a few Tibetan institutions, which are partially financed by the Indian government or through foreign donations. These are predominantly administered by the Tibetans The DOE in Dharamsala works closely with these institutions because they offer opportunities to individuals who choose to pursue higher education in the fields of Tibetan religion and culture.